清代的死刑复核制度

少杀慎杀：清代的死刑复核制度

清代秋审被视为国家大典，是对依律秋决但尚未执行的对象进行死刑复核的会审制度。其程序之严格、审议之慎重、情法之持平，在中国古代历史上仅见。

作者：宋石男

清代秋审被视为国家大典，是对依律秋决但尚未执行的对象进行死刑复核的会审制度。其程序之严格、审议之慎重、情法之持平，在中国古代历史上仅见。

清代州县只有审理民事案件的自治权，刑事案件必须上报。简略而言，对于死刑案件，州县初审后，逐级报送知府、按察使、督抚复审。地方各级提出定罪量刑意见，督抚如无异议，即向皇帝奏报，并抄送副本与刑部分管司。皇帝收到督抚奏报后，交三法司(刑部、都察院、大理寺)依律拟罪。若涉死罪，则纳入秋审程序。

秋审主要确定死刑对象的类别，分为情实、缓决、矜疑三项，乾隆前期又加入留养、承祀两项。若断为情实，则执行死刑；缓决者继续监侯，于次年秋审时再行议处；矜疑是可矜可疑的略称(乾隆三十二年改为可矜)，符合此项者可获减刑。留养是考虑到罪囚有赡养老病双亲的责任而免其死罪，承祀则是考虑到罪囚家族香火承续而免其死罪。

秋审大概可分为两个阶段。前阶段为一至四月，书吏起草文案，分管事务的刑部司官(主事、员外郎、郎中)对文案进行增删并附“看语”(判案意见)，最后交由刑部堂官(尚书、左

右侍郎)批阅。最初的看语称作“司看”，第二次为“覆看”，第三次为“总看”。司看用蓝笔，覆看用紫笔，总看用墨笔。三看之后，还有堂官的批语，可说慎之又慎。后阶段为五至七月，刑部将地方督抚审案结论与刑部看语对照，再分两次会议(司官为主体的“司议”与堂官为主体的“堂议”)进行讨论，从而得出刑部的最终意见。随后，刑部准备好文案，由九卿科道会审(九卿会审主要是形式上的意义，基本都会接受刑部意见)，定议后向皇帝报告(若大臣们意见不一致，则将正反观点一并上奏)，由皇帝作出终极钩决：予钩(立即执行死刑)或免勾(暂不执行死刑)。

姑举两例。

光绪六年(1880)六月，安徽某县人姚绍海途遇卖布裤的侄子姚本之，因侄子常不务正业，姚绍海怀疑其售卖布裤为赃物，诘问之，遂起争执。姚绍海伙同侄孙姚得意将姚本之捆绑，打算带回家训斥。路上姚本之不服，高声辱骂姚绍海，后者心中愤慨，欲杀之除害，即同姚得意斩杀姚本之。致命伤为姚绍海所致。

对此案，三法司拟律意见是“依故杀之法，绞”。此意见获得裁可，姚绍海被判绞监候(死刑缓期执行)留待秋审。

秋审中，司看意见很简单，只两个字：“拟缓”。覆看批：“谋毙卑幼，情节较惨。惟衅起管教，死者卧地辱骂，已属理曲犯尊。该犯有心致死，系由死者不务正业，恐被连累起意。尚可原缓。”总看则批：“死者并无为匪确据„„该犯辄商同族人，谋毙其命，情节极为残忍。似难以‘衅起管教’等词，率行拟缓。仍记候彚核。”

司看与覆看都赞成缓决，总看却看重该案件属于极残忍谋杀，且死者并无为非作歹的确据，因此不太赞成缓决，但并未给出结论，而是慎称需要留待日后审核。

那么，堂官又是如何批示的呢？当时的刑部尚书张之万批道：“总批是。难以原缓”。刑部左侍郎薛允升(其人系晚清律学名家)则批道：“谋杀虽较故杀情节为重，惟系临时起意，与平素仇隙不睦、蓄意残杀究属有间。既无另有起衅别情，似或可宽其一线。记彚核。”尚书赞同总看而拟缓，左侍郎却以“临时起意”而希望“宽其一线”，堂官意见并不统一。 接下来的司议上，意见获得统一：“情节较惨，姑以衅起管教并无诈赖别情，尚可宽其一线。仍恭候堂定。”司议结果与薛允升的意见接近，倾向于缓决。堂议记载暂缺。此案最终以情实上报皇帝，估计在堂议环节张之万的意见获得更多支持。光绪九年(1883)，皇帝钩决结果为“予勾”，姚绍海被判执行死刑，此时离其犯案已过三年。

同在光绪年间，29岁的贵州绥阳县陈姓丫头因贫穷盗窃杨氏棺内玉镯。依照清律，“凡发掘坟，见棺者，杖一百，流三千里；已开棺见尸者，绞”，陈丫头原拟绞立决(死刑)，后改绞监候(死刑缓期执行)。部议时有两个细节引起争论：一是该棺木浮厝，属停柩浅埋，不同于已垒坟，也不同于未殡埋棺木；二是棺盖未钉，陈丫头无凿锯实迹。各官员就陈丫头盗窃时有无见尸、盗浮厝棺物和盗坟冢在量刑上的区别、拾石垫起棺盖摸窃与锯缝凿孔盗墓的区别反复讨论，最后方定“可宽其一线，于黄册内声叙办理”。所谓“声叙”，又叫“声请”，即将记有斟酌是由的纸片添附在奏报皇帝的题本中，作为附加说明。

通过上述可以看出，清代的秋审制度，在复核死刑上确实慎之又慎，一定程度上避免了误杀和乱杀，正如龚鼎孳所言，“务斟酌情法之平，使无仓卒锻炼之憾”(这里的“情”，主要指案件具体情形、情势，而不一定指情感、人情)。据学者孙家红研究，有清一代，不完全统计大概有3/4的死刑监候犯人，在经历一次或若干次秋审后，被免于死刑处罚。 对秋审制度的一个常见误会是，终极钩决权在皇帝手中，因此生杀大权全操于皇帝一人，不杀是“市恩”，杀是“乾纲独断”。这并不公允。诚然，在所有刑事案件中，皇帝都掌握了杀与不杀的决断权，但他并不能完全一意孤行。首先，判刑依据的律例，表面上由皇帝立法，实际上却是历代官僚共同体集体确定的精炼规范(日人寺田浩明有详细论述)，皇帝也不能长期、任意地凌驾于律法之上。其次，律例之外，还有传统道德规范，诸如“天命”、“仁义”等范畴，皇帝同样不能超越其上。最后，但并非最不重要的，皇帝本人没有审判权，只有对大臣经过层层程序、集体讨论之后提交的定罪量刑结论的选择权与决定权，从而并不能如前苏联体制之下的斯大林一样拥有无限裁量权。事实上，如果我们稍微涉猎一下清代帝王的钩决记载，就会发现，他们旺盛的精力与审慎的态度，令人吃惊。

当然，清代秋审制度也并非无懈可击。太平天国兴起之后，“就地正法”被大规模实施，导致最高死刑复核权下移，造成滥用死刑。到了晚清，法学名家沈家本对秋审制度展开激烈批评，倡导改革。及至清朝覆亡，立宪共和，政体大变，秋审制度也被废止。不过到1933年，学者董康还发表《论秋审制度与欧美减刑委员会》，冀图部分恢复秋审制度。董康青年时激烈主张废除中国传统法律制度(包括秋审)，而用西方法律制度取而代之，但在中年之后，他却为秋审制度鼓与呼，是他糊涂保守，还是确实不忍见到传统法制菁华被彻底毁弃？ Less kill shen: qing dynasty of the death penalty review system

Autumnal review is regarded as national ceremony in qing dynasty, it is to should but has not yet been performed in accordance with the law of autumn of object for the death penalty review system of came.The procedure strictly, consider carefully, emotion, flat, only in the Chinese ancient history.

Author: Song Shi male Autumnal review is regarded as national ceremony in qing dynasty, it is to should but has not yet been performed in accordance with the law of autumn of object for the death penalty review system of came.The procedure strictly, consider carefully, emotion, flat, only in the Chinese ancient history. States in the qing dynasty only the autonomy of civil cases, criminal cases must be reported.Briefly speaking, for death penalty cases, states after preliminary examination, step by step review submitted to the magistrate, provincial judges and governors.Local conviction sentencing opinions, if no objection to governors, namely, reporting to the emperor, and send a copy with punishments in charge of the department.After reporting, the emperor received governors in the three division (punishments, DouChaYuan, Dali temple) in accordance with the law of sin.If wade to death, then into autumnal review procedure. Autumnal review mainly determine the category of death penalty object, is divided into real, slow, pity is suspected, the early stage of the qianlong and add in keeping, the 2nd two.If broke in mood, the execution;The slow run-off continue hou, in the next year slowly with a autumnal review meeting place;Pity is suspected is pity is suspicious for short (32 years of emperor qianlong to r.), to comply with the mitigation.To keep money, or are considering criminal shall have the responsibility of the parents and avoid its death, bearing si is considering the criminal family incense seemed and avoid its death.

Autumnal review probably can be divided into two stages.Before stage for a to April, since the draft document, the punishments for transaction department officer (jc, YuanWaiLang, therapists) to add or delete text with "words" (entity), finally to the punishments don officer (President assistant minister) approval.The original language is called "look", the second for "watches", for "total look" for the third time.Watches with purple watch with blue pen, pen, always watching with ink.Three look after, and hall officer scolded, but said humbly.Stage for 5 to July, after the local governors punishments is about conclusion and punishments to see language comparison, then give two meetings (department officer officer as the main body of the "company meeting" and the hall as the main body of "hall meeting") are discussed, thus draws the punishments final opinion.Then, ready to copy, punishments by Dan tao came (Dan came mainly form the significance of basic will accept punishments), appropriately to report to the emperor after (if ministers did not agree, it will be positive and negative views together to play), the ultimate hook made by emperor definitely: grant hook (immediately executed) or free (not executed).

Gu for two cases.

Guangxu six years (1880) in June, some county in anhui people Yao Shao HaiTu encounter sell pants yao of the nephew, because the nephew often work honestly, Yao Shaohai doubt its selling pants for stolen goods, heckle, hence a dispute.Yao Shaohai engage grandnephew yao yao satisfiedly will this bundle, going to home.Abused Yao Shaohai, loudly way yao refuses to accept this, the latter outrage in the heart, the desire of the pesticides kill, namely with yao yao proud slay this.Achilles' heel for Yao Shaohai caused by.

For the case, we are going to law of the three views is "in accordance with the law of a murderer, ground".The comments for cutting can be stranded Yao Shaohai was sentenced to prison waiting for autumn trial suspended death sentences (). Charge of autumnal review, see the opinion is very simple, only two words: "to slow".Watches group: "seeks the British killed young, if the circumstances are relatively worse. But throughout the discipline, the dead lie to abuse, have been belong to make honour. The committed intentional death, by the dead raffish, fear of getting drenched do. Can be slow."Total of the order: "the dead and bandits irrefutable... the committed to do business, seeks the shoot his life, the plot is very cruel. Seems hard to 'throughout the discipline such as word, line rate to slow. Still remember hou 彚 nuclear." Watches are for department look and slow, but always look on the case is extremely cruel murder, and there is no evil indeed according to the dead, so don't approve of slow, but did not give a conclusion, but said that need to be carefully review.

So, how hall officer instructions?The punishments Zhang Zhiwan group of ministers: "slow. Is the total number of hard to the original".Punishments left assistant minister Xue Yunsheng (man chongjin learn late famous) writes: "murder is a murderer plot is heavy, but is to improvise, and always feud between, deliberately killed in between. Otherwise QiXin neither BieQing, or to its wide line. Remember 彚 nuclear."Ministers agreed that always look and slow, but left assistant minister to "heard" in the hope that "the line" wide, hall officer opinion is not unified. Next up, advice for uniform: "if the circumstances are relatively bad, gu lai BieQing discipline no cheat to trouble, well its wide line. Still await hall."The opinions of the department discussion result and Xue Yunsheng close, tend to be slow.Hall meeting records vacant.The case in real reported to the emperor, estimated in discussion link Zhang Zhiwan opinion of the court for more support.Emperor guangxu nine years (1883), hook the results for "tick", Yao Shaohai has been sentenced to death penalty, has three years from its crime at this time.

Guangxu period, 29, guizhou suiyang Chen wench because of poor theft jade bracelet in young's coffin.According to chongjin, "whoever excavated grave, see coffins, staff one hundred, flow three thousands of miles; open coffin see corpse, Hank", Chen wench original plans to wring LiJue (to death), after the ground inspect wait suspended death sentences () instead.Details of discussion on two controversial: one is the coffin FuCuo, belong to stop Jiu shallow buried, unlike has grave, also is different from their buried coffin;The second is the coffin nail, cut saw Chen wench no trace.The officials, Chen wench theft has no see corpse, chocolates FuCuo coffins and the difference on the mounds in sentencing, pick up stone underlay the coffin touch secretly and kerf perforating tomb-raiding discussed repeatedly, and the difference between the last party set "can be a wide line, in the Yellow Book Syria is dealt with".So-called "Syria", also called "petition", to remember have measured by paper appended in the reporting of the emperor's topic in this, as additional instructions. Through the above you can see, in the qing dynasty system of autumnal review on reviewing death penalty do transactions, to a certain extent to avoid the shot and killed, as Gong Dingzi puts it, "we consider method of flat, without any exercise of regret" (here "love", mainly refers to the specific case, the situation, not necessarily refers to the emotion, human).Sun Gugong research according to scholars, qing dynasty, incomplete statistics about three-fourths of the death penalty prison inmates, after once or several times autumnal review, was from the death penalty. Is a common misunderstanding of autumnal review system, the ultimate hook decision in the hands of the emperor, emperor so raw power, all operating in one, is not kill

"city", is "autocratic".It's not fair.It is true that in all criminal cases, the emperor have mastered the kill and not to kill discretion, but he cannot fully going her own way.First of all, the sentence on the basis of statutes, legislation on the surface by the emperor, actually all previous dynasties bureaucratic community collectively determine refining specification (Japanese temple hao-ming tian) is discussed in detail, the emperor can't long-term, arbitrarily above the law.Second, statutes, and the traditional ethics, such as "mandate of heaven", "righteousness" category, the emperor also cannot surpass it.Last but not least, the emperor himself without jurisdiction, only to go through layer upon layer of ministers, the collective discussion submitted after the conclusion of the criterions for the conviction of the choice and decision, thus cannot system as the Soviet union under Stalin as unlimited discretion.In fact, if we hook dabble in a little bit about the qing dynasty emperor's records, you will find that their vigorous energy and prudent attitude, surprising. Autumnal review system in the qing dynasty, of course, are not invulnerable.After the rise of the taiping heavenly kingdom, "the spot" are large-scale implementation, result in the highest death penalty review power down, cause the abuse of the death penalty.In the late qing dynasty, famous shenyang law this fierce criticism on autumnal review system, advocating reform.Until the end of the qing dynasty, the constitutional republic, regime change, autumnal review system has been

abolished.But in 1933, scholars Dong Kang also published "on Europe and the United States and autumnal review system commutation committee", to drive part of the recovery system of autumnal review.Dong Kang youth is a fierce advocate the abolition of the traditional Chinese legal system (including autumnal review), and replaced with western legal system, but after middle age, he was for the drum and the autumnal review system, is his careless conservative, and really cannot bear to see the traditional legal system extracts were completely destroys?